In light of the $5 billion EU antitrust ruling against Google this week, we started noticing a certain classic Ars story circulating around social media. Google's methods of controlling the open source Android code and discouraging Android forks is exactly the kind of behavior the EU has a problem with, and many of the techniques outlined in this 2013 article are still in use today.
![]() reader comments911 with 357 posters participating, including story authorThe idea of a sequel to this piece has come up a few times, but Google's Android strategy of an open source base paired with key proprietary apps and services hasn't really changed in the last five or so years. There have been updates to Google's proprietary apps so that they look different from the screenshots in this article, but the base strategy outlined here is still very relevant. So in light of the latest EU development, we're resurfacing this story for the weekend. It first ran on October 20, 2013 and appears largely unchangedâbut we did toss in a few 'In 2018' updates anywhere they felt particularly relevant.
Six years ago, in November 2007, the Android Open Source Project (AOSP) was announced. The original iPhone came out just a few months earlier, capturing people's imaginations and ushering in the modern smartphone era. While Google was an app partner for the original iPhone, it could see what a future of unchecked iPhone competition would be like. Vic Gundotra, recalling Andy Rubin's initial pitch for Android, stated:
He argued that if Google did not act, we faced a Draconian future, a future where one man, one company, one device, one carrier would be our only choice.
Google was terrified that Apple would end up ruling the mobile space. So, to help in the fight against the iPhone at a time when Google had no mobile foothold whatsoever, Android was launched as an open source project.
In that era, Google had nothing, so any adoptionâany shred of market shareâwas welcome. Google decided to give Android away for free and use it as a trojan horse for Google services. The thinking went that if Google Search was one day locked out of the iPhone, people would stop using Google Search on the desktop. Android was the 'moat' around the Google Search 'castle'âit would exist to protect Google's online properties in the mobile world.
Today, things are a little different. Android went from zero percent of the smartphone market to owning nearly 80 percent of it. Android has arguably won the smartphone wars, but 'Android winning' and 'Google winning' are not necessarily the same thing. Since Android is open source, it doesn't really 'belong' to Google. Anyone is free to take it, clone the source, and create their own fork or alternate version.
As we've seen with the struggles of Windows Phone and Blackberry 10, app selection is everything in the mobile market, and Android's massive install base means it has a ton of apps. If a company forks Android, the OS will already be compatible with millions of apps; a company just needs to build its own app store and get everything uploaded. In theory, you'd have a non-Google OS with a ton of apps, virtually overnight. If a company other than Google can come up with a way to make Android better than it is now, it would be able to build a serious competitor and possibly threaten Google's smartphone dominance. This is the biggest danger to Google's current position: a successful, alternative Android distribution.
And a few companies are taking a swing at separating Google from Android. The most successful, high-profile alternative version of Android is Amazon's Kindle Fire. Amazon takes AOSP, skips all the usual Google add-ons, and provides its own app store, content stores, browser, cloud storage, and e-mail. The entire country of China skips the Google part of Android, too. Most Google services are banned, so the only option there is an alternate version. In both of these cases, Google's Android code is used, and it gets nothing for it.
It's easy to give something away when you're in last place with zero market share, precisely where Android started. When you're in first place though, it's a little harder to be so open and welcoming. Android has gone from being the thing that protects Google to being something worth protecting in its own right. Mobile is the future of the Internet, and controlling the world's largest mobile platform has tons of benefits. At this point, it's too difficult to stuff the open source genie back into the bottle, which begs the question: how do you control an open source project?
Google has always given itself some protection against alternative versions of Android. What many people think of as 'Android' actually falls into two categories: the open parts from the Android Open Source Project (AOSP), which are the foundation of Android, and the closed source parts, which are all the Google-branded apps. While Google will never go the entire way and completely close Android, the company seems to be doing everything it can to give itself leverage over the existing open source project. And the company's main method here is to bring more and more apps under the closed source 'Google' umbrella.
Closed source creep
There have always been closed source Google apps. Originally, the group consisted mostly of clients for Google's online services, like Gmail, Maps, Talk, and YouTube. When Android had no market share, Google was comfortable keeping just these apps and building the rest of Android as an open source project. Since Android has become a mobile powerhouse though, Google has decided it needs more control over the public source code.
For some of these apps, there might still be an AOSP equivalent, but when the proprietary Google version was launched, the AOSP version is usually deprecated. Less open source code means more work for Google's competitors. While you can't kill an open source app, you can turn it into abandonware by moving future development to a closed source app. When Google rebrands an app or releases a new piece of Android onto the Play Store, it's often a sign that the source has been closed and the AOSP version is dead.
Search
We'll start with the Search app, which is an excellent example of what happens when Google duplicates AOSP functionality.
In August 2010, Google launched Voice Actions. With it, the company introduced 'Google Search' into the (then) Android Market. These were the days of Froyo. The above picture shows the latest version of AOSP Search and Google Search running on Android 4.3. As you can see, AOSP Search is still stuck in the days of Froyo (Android 2.2). Once Google had its closed source app up and running, it immediately abandoned the open source version. The Google version has search by voice, audio search, text-to-speech, an answer service, and it contains Google Now, the company's predictive assistant feature. The AOSP version can do Web and local searches and.. that's it.
Android is a mobile operating system developed by Google. It is based on a modified version of the Linux kernel and other open source software, and is designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. In addition, Google has developed Android TV for televisions, Android Auto for cars, and Wear OS for wrist watches, each with a specialized user interface. Variants of Android are also used on game consoles, digital cameras, PCs and other electronics.
Initially developed by Android Inc., which Google bought in 2005, Android was unveiled in 2007, with the first commercial Android device launched in September 2008. The current stable version is Android 9 'Pie', released in August 2018. Google released the first beta of the next release, Android Q, on Pixel phones in March 2019. The core Android source code is known as Android Open Source Project (AOSP), which is primarily licensed under the Apache License.
Android is also associated with a suite of proprietary software developed by Google, called Google Mobile Services (GMS),[10] that frequently comes pre-installed on devices. This includes core apps such as Gmail, the application store/digital distribution platform Google Play and associated Google Play Services development platform, and usually includes the Google Chrome web browser and Google Search app. These apps are licensed by manufacturers of Android devices certified under standards imposed by Google, but AOSP has been used as the basis of competing Android ecosystems such as Amazon.com's Fire OS, which use their own equivalents to Google Mobile Services.
Android has been the best-selling OS worldwide on smartphones since 2011 and on tablets since 2013. As of May 2017, it has over two billion monthly active users, the largest installed base of any operating system, and as of December 2018, the Google Play store features over 2.6 million apps.[11]
History
Old Android logotype (2007-2014)
Android Inc. was founded in Palo Alto, California, in October 2003 by Andy Rubin, Rich Miner, Nick Sears, and Chris White.[12][13] Rubin described the Android project as 'tremendous potential in developing smarter mobile devices that are more aware of its owner's location and preferences'.[13] The early intentions of the company were to develop an advanced operating system for digital cameras, and this was the basis of its pitch to investors in April 2004.[14] The company then decided that the market for cameras was not large enough for its goals, and by five months later it had diverted its efforts and was pitching Android as a handset operating system that would rival Symbian and Microsoft Windows Mobile.[14][15]
Rubin had difficulty attracting investors early on, and Android was facing eviction from its office space. Steve Perlman, a close friend of Rubin, brought him $10,000 in cash in an envelope, and shortly thereafter wired an undisclosed amount as seed funding. Perlman refused a stake in the company, and has stated 'I did it because I believed in the thing, and I wanted to help Andy.'[16][17]
In July 2005,[13]Google acquired Android Inc. for at least $50 million.[18] Its key employees, including Rubin, Miner and White, joined Google as part of the acquisition.[13] Not much was known about the secretive Android at the time, with the company having provided few details other than that it was making software for mobile phones.[13] At Google, the team led by Rubin developed a mobile device platform powered by the Linux kernel. Google marketed the platform to handset makers and carriers on the promise of providing a flexible, upgradeable system.[19] Google had 'lined up a series of hardware components and software partners and signaled to carriers that it was open to various degrees of cooperation'.[attribution needed][20]
Speculation about Google's intention to enter the mobile communications market continued to build through December 2006.[21] An early prototype had a close resemblance to a BlackBerry phone, with no touchscreen and a physical QWERTYkeyboard, but the arrival of 2007's AppleiPhone meant that Android 'had to go back to the drawing board'.[22][23] Google later changed its Android specification documents to state that 'Touchscreens will be supported', although 'the Product was designed with the presence of discrete physical buttons as an assumption, therefore a touchscreen cannot completely replace physical buttons'.[24] By 2008, both Nokia and BlackBerry announced touch-based smartphones to rival the iPhone 3G, and Android's focus eventually switched to just touchscreens. The first commercially available smartphone running Android was the HTC Dream, also known as T-Mobile G1, announced on September 23, 2008.[25][26]
HTC Dream or T-Mobile G1, the first commercially released device running Android (2008)
On November 5, 2007, the Open Handset Alliance, a consortium of technology companies including Google, device manufacturers such as HTC, Motorola and Samsung, wireless carriers such as Sprint and T-Mobile, and chipset makers such as Qualcomm and Texas Instruments, unveiled itself, with a goal to develop 'the first truly open and comprehensive platform for mobile devices'.[27][28][29] Within a year, the Open Handset Alliance faced two other open source competitors, the Symbian Foundation and the LiMo Foundation, the latter also developing a Linux-based mobile operating system like Google. In September 2007, InformationWeek covered an Evalueserve study reporting that Google had filed several patent applications in the area of mobile telephony.[30][31]
Since 2008, Android has seen numerous updates which have incrementally improved the operating system, adding new features and fixing bugs in previous releases. Each major release is named in alphabetical order after a dessert or sugary treat, with the first few Android versions being called 'Cupcake', 'Donut', 'Eclair', and 'Froyo', in that order. During its announcement of Android KitKat in 2013, Google explained that 'Since these devices make our lives so sweet, each Android version is named after a dessert', although a Google spokesperson told CNN in an interview that 'It's kind of like an internal team thing, and we prefer to be a little bit â how should I say â a bit inscrutable in the matter, I'll say'.[32]
In 2010, Google launched its Nexus series of devices, a lineup in which Google partnered with different device manufacturers to produce new devices and introduce new Android versions. The series was described as having 'played a pivotal role in Android's history by introducing new software iterations and hardware standards across the board', and became known for its 'bloat-free' software with 'timely .. updates'.[33] At its developer conference in May 2013, Google announced a special version of the Samsung Galaxy S4, where, instead of using Samsung's own Android customization, the phone ran 'stock Android' and was promised to receive new system updates fast.[34] The device would become the start of the Google Play edition program, and was followed by other devices, including the HTC One Google Play edition,[35] and Moto G Google Play edition.[36] In 2015, Ars Technica wrote that 'Earlier this week, the last of the Google Play edition Android phones in Google's online storefront were listed as 'no longer available for sale' and that 'Now they're all gone, and it looks a whole lot like the program has wrapped up'.[37][38]
Eric Schmidt, Andy Rubin and Hugo Barra at a 2012 press conference announcing Google's Nexus 7 tablet
From 2008 to 2013, Hugo Barra served as product spokesperson, representing Android at press conferences and Google I/O, Google's annual developer-focused conference. He left Google in August 2013 to join Chinese phone maker Xiaomi.[39][40] Less than six months earlier, Google's then-CEOLarry Page announced in a blog post that Andy Rubin had moved from the Android division to take on new projects at Google, and that Sundar Pichai would become the new Android lead.[41][42] Pichai himself would eventually switch positions, becoming the new CEO of Google in August 2015 following the company's restructure into the Alphabet conglomerate,[43][44] making Hiroshi Lockheimer the new head of Android.[45][46]
In June 2014, Google announced Android One, a set of 'hardware reference models' that would 'allow [device makers] to easily create high-quality phones at low costs', designed for consumers in developing countries.[47][48][49] In September, Google announced the first set of Android One phones for release in India.[50][51] However, Recode reported in June 2015 that the project was 'a disappointment', citing 'reluctant consumers and manufacturing partners' and 'misfires from the search company that has never quite cracked hardware'.[52] Plans to relaunch Android One surfaced in August 2015,[53] with Africa announced as the next location for the program a week later.[54][55] A report from The Information in January 2017 stated that Google is expanding its low-cost Android One program into the United States, although The Verge notes that the company will presumably not produce the actual devices itself.[56][57]
Google introduced the Pixel and Pixel XL smartphones in October 2016, marketed as being the first phones made by Google,[58][59] and exclusively featured certain software features, such as the Google Assistant, before wider rollout.[60][61] The Pixel phones replaced the Nexus series,[62] with a new generation of Pixel phones launched in October 2017.[63]
FeaturesInterface
Android's default user interface is mainly based on direct manipulation, using touch inputs that loosely correspond to real-world actions, like swiping, tapping, pinching, and reverse pinching to manipulate on-screen objects, along with a virtual keyboard.[64]Game controllers and full-size physical keyboards are supported via Bluetooth or USB.[65][66] The response to user input is designed to be immediate and provides a fluid touch interface, often using the vibration capabilities of the device to provide haptic feedback to the user. Internal hardware, such as accelerometers, gyroscopes and proximity sensors are used by some applications to respond to additional user actions, for example adjusting the screen from portrait to landscape depending on how the device is oriented,[67] or allowing the user to steer a vehicle in a racing game by rotating the device, simulating control of a steering wheel.[68]
Android devices boot to the homescreen, the primary navigation and information 'hub' on Android devices, analogous to the desktop found on personal computers. Android homescreens are typically made up of app icons and widgets; app icons launch the associated app, whereas widgets display live, auto-updating content, such as a weather forecast, the user's email inbox, or a news ticker directly on the homescreen.[69] A homescreen may be made up of several pages, between which the user can swipe back and forth.[70] Third-party apps available on Google Play and other app stores can extensively re-theme the homescreen,[71] and even mimic the look of other operating systems, such as Windows Phone.[72] Most manufacturers customize the look and features of their Android devices to differentiate themselves from their competitors.[73]
Along the top of the screen is a status bar, showing information about the device and its connectivity. This status bar can be 'pulled' down to reveal a notification screen where apps display important information or updates.[70] Notifications are 'short, timely, and relevant information about your app when it's not in use', and when tapped, users are directed to a screen inside the app relating to the notification.[74] Beginning with Android 4.1 'Jelly Bean', 'expandable notifications' allow the user to tap an icon on the notification in order for it to expand and display more information and possible app actions right from the notification.[75]
An All Apps screen lists all installed applications, with the ability for users to drag an app from the list onto the home screen. A Recents screen lets users switch between recently used apps.[70]
Applications
Applications ('apps'), which extend the functionality of devices, are written using the Android software development kit (SDK)[76] and, often, the Java programming language.[77] Java may be combined with C/C++,[78] together with a choice of non-default runtimes that allow better C++ support.[79] The Go programming language is also supported, although with a limited set of application programming interfaces (API).[80] In May 2017, Google announced support for Android app development in the Kotlin programming language.[81][82]
The SDK includes a comprehensive set of development tools,[83] including a debugger, software libraries, a handset emulator based on QEMU, documentation, sample code, and tutorials. Initially, Google's supported integrated development environment (IDE) was Eclipse using the Android Development Tools (ADT) plugin; in December 2014, Google released Android Studio, based on IntelliJ IDEA, as its primary IDE for Android application development. Other development tools are available, including a native development kit (NDK) for applications or extensions in C or C++, Google App Inventor, a visual environment for novice programmers, and various cross platform mobile web applications frameworks. In January 2014, Google unveiled an framework based on Apache Cordova for porting ChromeHTML 5web applications to Android, wrapped in a native application shell.[84]
Android has a growing selection of third-party applications, which can be acquired by users by downloading and installing the application's APK (Android application package) file, or by downloading them using an application store program that allows users to install, update, and remove applications from their devices. Google Play Store is the primary application store installed on Android devices that comply with Google's compatibility requirements and license the Google Mobile Services software.[85][86] Google Play Store allows users to browse, download and update applications published by Google and third-party developers; as of July 2013, there are more than one million applications available for Android in Play Store.[87] As of July 2013, 50 billion applications have been installed.[88][89] Some carriers offer direct carrier billing for Google Play application purchases, where the cost of the application is added to the user's monthly bill.[90] As of May 2017, there are over one billion active users a month for Gmail, Android, Chrome, Google Play and Maps.
Due to the open nature of Android, a number of third-party application marketplaces also exist for Android, either to provide a substitute for devices that are not allowed to ship with Google Play Store, provide applications that cannot be offered on Google Play Store due to policy violations, or for other reasons. Examples of these third-party stores have included the Amazon Appstore, GetJar, and SlideMe. F-Droid, another alternative marketplace, seeks to only provide applications that are distributed under free and open sourcelicenses.[85][91][92][93]
Memory management
Since Android devices are usually battery-powered, Android is designed to manage processes to keep power consumption at a minimum. When an application is not in use the system suspends its operation so that, while available for immediate use rather than closed, it does not use battery power or CPU resources.[94][95] Android manages the applications stored in memory automatically: when memory is low, the system will begin invisibly and automatically closing inactive processes, starting with those that have been inactive for the longest amount of time.[96][97] Lifehacker reported in 2011 that third-party task killer applications were doing more harm than good.[98]
Hardware
The main hardware platform for Android is ARM (the ARMv7 and ARMv8-A architectures), with x86 and x86-64 architectures also officially supported in later versions of Android.[99][100][101][102] The unofficial Android-x86 project provided support for x86 architectures ahead of the official support.[103][104] The ARMv5TE and MIPS32/64 architectures were also historically supported but removed in later Android releases.[105] Since 2012, Android devices with Intel processors began to appear, including phones[106] and tablets. While gaining support for 64-bit platforms, Android was first made to run on 64-bit x86 and then on ARM64. Since Android 5.0 'Lollipop', 64-bit variants of all platforms are supported in addition to the 32-bit variants.[99]
Requirements for the minimum amount of RAM for devices running Android 7.1 range from in practice 2 GB for best hardware, down to 1 GB for the most common screen, to absolute minimum 512 MB for the lowest spec 32-bit smartphone. The recommendation for Android 4.4 is to have at least 512 MB of RAM,[107] while for 'low RAM' devices 340 MB is the required minimum amount that does not include memory dedicated to various hardware components such as the baseband processor.[108] Android 4.4 requires a 32-bitARMv7, MIPS or x86 architecture processor (latter two through unofficial ports),[103][104] together with an OpenGL ES 2.0 compatible graphics processing unit (GPU).[109] Android supports OpenGL ES 1.1, 2.0, 3.0, 3.1 and as of latest major version, 3.2 and since Android 7.0 Vulkan (and version 1.1 available for some devices[110]). Some applications may explicitly require a certain version of the OpenGL ES, and suitable GPU hardware is required to run such applications.[109]
Android devices incorporate many optional hardware components, including still or video cameras, GPS, orientation sensors, dedicated gaming controls, accelerometers, gyroscopes, barometers, magnetometers, proximity sensors, pressure sensors, thermometers, and touchscreens. Some hardware components are not required, but became standard in certain classes of devices, such as smartphones, and additional requirements apply if they are present. Some other hardware was initially required, but those requirements have been relaxed or eliminated altogether. For example, as Android was developed initially as a phone OS, hardware such as microphones were required, while over time the phone function became optional.[89] Android used to require an autofocus camera, which was relaxed to a fixed-focus camera[89] if present at all, since the camera was dropped as a requirement entirely when Android started to be used on set-top boxes.
In addition to running on smartphones and tablets, several vendors run Android natively on regular PC hardware with a keyboard and mouse.[111][112][113][114] In addition to their availability on commercially available hardware, similar PC hardware-friendly versions of Android are freely available from the Android-x86 project, including customized Android 4.4.[115] Using the Android emulator that is part of the Android SDK, or third-party emulators, Android can also run non-natively on x86 architectures.[116][117] Chinese companies are building a PC and mobile operating system, based on Android, to 'compete directly with Microsoft Windows and Google Android'.[118] The Chinese Academy of Engineering noted that 'more than a dozen' companies were customising Android following a Chinese ban on the use of Windows 8 on government PCs.[119][120][121]
Development
The stack of Android Open Source Project
Android is developed by Google until the latest changes and updates are ready to be released, at which point the source code is made available to the Android Open Source Project (AOSP),[122] an open source initiative led by Google.[123] The AOSP code can be found without modification on select devices, mainly the Nexus and Pixel series of devices.[124] The source code is, in turn, customized and adapted by original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to run on their hardware.[125][126] Also, Android's source code does not contain the often proprietary device drivers that are needed for certain hardware components.[127] As a result, most Android devices, including Google's own, ultimately ship with a combination of free and open source and proprietary software, with the software required for accessing Google services falling into the latter category.
Update schedule
Google announces major incremental upgrades to Android on a yearly basis.[128] The updates can be installed on devices over-the-air.[129] The latest major release is 9 'Pie'.
Compared to its primary rival mobile operating system, Apple's iOS, Android updates typically reach various devices with significant delays. Except for devices within the Google Nexus and Pixel brands, updates often arrive months after the release of the new version, or not at all.[130] This was partly due to the extensive variation in hardware in Android devices,[131] to which each upgrade must be specifically tailored, a time- and resource-consuming process.[132] Manufacturers often prioritize their newest devices and leave old ones behind.[133] Additional delays can be introduced by wireless carriers that, after receiving updates from manufacturers, further customize and brand Android to their needs and conduct extensive testing on their networks before sending the upgrade out to users.[133][134] There are also situations in which upgrades are not possible due to one manufacturing partner not providing necessary updates to drivers.[135]
The extensive variation of hardware in Android devices causes significant delays for software upgrades, with new versions of the operating system and security patches typically taking months before reaching consumers, or sometimes not at all. The lack of after-sale support from manufacturers and carriers has been widely criticized by consumer groups and the technology media.[136][137][138] Some commentators have noted that the industry has a financial incentive not to upgrade their devices, as the lack of updates for existing devices fuels the purchase of newer ones,[139] an attitude described as 'insulting'.[138]The Guardian complained that the method of distribution for updates is complicated only because manufacturers and carriers have designed it that way.[138] In 2011, Google partnered with a number of industry players to announce an 'Android Update Alliance', pledging to deliver timely updates for every device for 18 months after its release; however, there has not been another official word about that alliance since its announcement.[133][140]
In 2012, Google began decoupling certain aspects of the operating system (particularly its core applications) so they could be updated through the Google Play store independently of the OS. One of those components, Google Play Services, is a closed-source system-level process providing APIs for Google services, installed automatically on nearly all devices running Android 2.2 'Froyo' and higher. With these changes, Google can add new system functionality through Play Services and update apps without having to distribute an upgrade to the operating system itself.[141] As a result, Android 4.2 and 4.3 'Jelly Bean' contained relatively fewer user-facing changes, focusing more on minor changes and platform improvements.[142]
In May 2016, Bloomberg reported that Google was making efforts to keep Android more up-to-date, including accelerated rates of security updates, rolling out technological workarounds, reducing requirements for phone testing, and ranking phone makers in an attempt to 'shame' them into better behavior. As stated by Bloomberg: 'As smartphones get more capable, complex and hackable, having the latest software work closely with the hardware is increasingly important'. Hiroshi Lockheimer, the Android lead, admitted that 'It's not an ideal situation', further commenting that the lack of updates is 'the weakest link on security on Android'. Wireless carriers were described in the report as the 'most challenging discussions', due to carriers' slow approval time due to testing on their networks, despite some carriers, including Verizon and Sprint, having already shortened their respective approval times. HTC's then-executive Jason Mackenzie called monthly security updates 'unrealistic' in 2015, and Google was trying to persuade carriers to exclude security patches from the full testing procedures. In a further effort for persuasion, Google shared a list of top phone makers measured by updated devices with its Android partners, and is considering making the list public. Mike Chan, co-founder of phone maker Nextbit and former Android developer, said that 'The best way to solve this problem is a massive re-architecture of the operating system', 'or Google could invest in training manufacturers and carriers 'to be good Android citizens'.[143][144][145]
In May 2017, with the announcement of Android 8.0, Google introduced Project Treble, a major re-architect of the Android OS framework designed to make it easier, faster, and less costly for manufacturers to update devices to newer versions of Android. Project Treble separates the vendor implementation (device-specific, lower-level software written by silicon manufacturers) from the Android OS framework via a new 'vendor interface'. In Android 7.0 and earlier, no formal vendor interface exists, so device makers must update large portions of the Android code to move a device to a newer version of the operating system. With Treble, the new stable vendor interface provides access to the hardware-specific parts of Android, enabling device makers to deliver new Android releases simply by updating the Android OS framework, 'without any additional work required from the silicon manufacturers.'[146]
In September 2017, Google's Project Treble team revealed that, as part of their efforts to improve the security lifecycle of Android devices, Google had managed to get the Linux Foundation to agree to extend the support lifecycle of the Linux Long-Term Support (LTS) kernel branch from the 2 years that it has historically lasted to 6 years for future versions of the LTS kernel, starting with Linux kernel 4.4.[147]
Notes on optimization on stiefel manifolds. Recently, several innovative architectures have been introduced to improve information flow in a network: residual networks, which directly pass information from previous layers up in a feed-forward network , and attention networks, which allow a recurrent network to access past activations.The idea of using a unitary recurrent weight matrix was introduced so that the gradients are inherently stable and do not vanish or explode. This problem has been addressed in the past by various means, including gradient clipping , using orthogonal matrices for initialization of the recurrence matrix , , or by using pioneering architectures such as long short-term memory (LSTM) recurrent networks or gated recurrent units. AbstractRecurrent neural networks are powerful models for processing sequential data, but they are generally plagued by vanishing and exploding gradient problems. The resulting unitary recurrent neural network (uRNN) is complex-valued and uses a complex form of the rectified linear activation function. Unitary recurrent neural networks (uRNNs), which use unitary recurrence matrices, have recently been proposed as a means to avoid these issues.
Linux kernel
Android's kernel is based on the Linux kernel's long-term support (LTS) branches. As of 2018, Android targets versions 4.4, 4.9 or 4.14 of the Linux kernel.[148] The actual kernel depends on the individual device.[149]
Android's variant of the Linux kernel has further architectural changes that are implemented by Google outside the typical Linux kernel development cycle, such as the inclusion of components like device trees, ashmem, ION, and different out of memory (OOM) handling.[150][151] Certain features that Google contributed back to the Linux kernel, notably a power management feature called 'wakelocks',[152] were initially rejected by mainline kernel developers partly because they felt that Google did not show any intent to maintain its own code.[153][154] Google announced in April 2010 that they would hire two employees to work with the Linux kernel community,[155] but Greg Kroah-Hartman, the current Linux kernel maintainer for the stable branch, said in December 2010 that he was concerned that Google was no longer trying to get their code changes included in mainstream Linux.[154] Google engineer Patrick Brady once stated in the company's developer conference that 'Android is not Linux',[156] with Computerworld adding that 'Let me make it simple for you, without Linux, there is no Android'.[157]Ars Technica wrote that 'Although Android is built on top of the Linux kernel, the platform has very little in common with the conventional desktop Linux stack'.[156]
In August 2011, Linus Torvalds said that 'eventually Android and Linux would come back to a common kernel, but it will probably not be for four to five years'.[158] In December 2011, Greg Kroah-Hartman announced the start of Android Mainlining Project, which aims to put some Android drivers, patches and features back into the Linux kernel, starting in Linux 3.3.[159] Linux included the autosleep and wakelocks capabilities in the 3.5 kernel, after many previous attempts at merger. The interfaces are the same but the upstream Linux implementation allows for two different suspend modes: to memory (the traditional suspend that Android uses), and to disk (hibernate, as it is known on the desktop).[160] Google maintains a public code repository that contains their experimental work to re-base Android off the latest stable Linux versions.[161][162]
The flash storage on Android devices is split into several partitions, such as
/system for the operating system itself, and /data for user data and application installations.[163] In contrast to desktop Linux distributions, Android device owners are not given root access to the operating system and sensitive partitions such as /system are read-only. However, root access can be obtained by exploiting security flaws in Android, which is used frequently by the open-source community to enhance the capabilities of their devices,[164] but also by malicious parties to install viruses and malware.[165]
Android is a Linux distribution according to the Linux Foundation,[166] Google's open-source chief Chris DiBona,[167] and several journalists.[168][169] Others, such as Google engineer Patrick Brady, say that Android is not Linux in the traditional Unix-like Linux distribution sense; Android does not include the GNU C Library (it uses Bionic as an alternative C library) and some of other components typically found in Linux distributions.[170]
With the release of Android Oreo in 2017, Google began to require that devices shipped with new SoCs had Linux kernel version 4.4 or newer, for security reasons. Existing devices upgraded to Oreo, and new products launched with older SoCs, were exempt from this rule.[171][172]
Software stack
Android's architecture diagram
On top of the Linux kernel, there are the middleware, libraries and APIs written in C, and application software running on an application framework which includes Java-compatible libraries. Development of the Linux kernel continues independently of Android's other source code projects.
Android uses Android Runtime (ART) as its runtime environment (introduced in version 4.4), which uses ahead-of-time (AOT) compilation to entirely compile the application bytecode into machine code upon the installation of an application. In Android 4.4, ART was an experimental feature and not enabled by default; it became the only runtime option in the next major version of Android, 5.0.[173] In versions no longer supported, until version 5.0 when ART took over, Android previously used Dalvik as a process virtual machine with trace-based just-in-time (JIT) compilation to run Dalvik 'dex-code' (Dalvik Executable), which is usually translated from the Java bytecode. Following the trace-based JIT principle, in addition to interpreting the majority of application code, Dalvik performs the compilation and native execution of select frequently executed code segments ('traces') each time an application is launched.[174][175][176]For its Java library, the Android platform uses a subset of the now discontinued Apache Harmony project.[177] In December 2015, Google announced that the next version of Android would switch to a Java implementation based on the OpenJDK project.[178]
Android's standard C library, Bionic, was developed by Google specifically for Android, as a derivation of the BSD's standard C library code. Bionic itself has been designed with several major features specific to the Linux kernel. The main benefits of using Bionic instead of the GNU C Library (glibc) or uClibc are its smaller runtime footprint, and optimization for low-frequency CPUs. At the same time, Bionic is licensed under the terms of the BSD licence, which Google finds more suitable for the Android's overall licensing model.[176]
Aiming for a different licensing model, toward the end of 2012, Google switched the Bluetooth stack in Android from the GPL-licensed BlueZ to the Apache-licensed BlueDroid.[179]
Android does not have a native X Window System by default, nor does it support the full set of standard GNU libraries. This made it difficult to port existing Linux applications or libraries to Android,[170] until version r5 of the Android Native Development Kit brought support for applications written completely in C or C++.[180] Libraries written in C may also be used in applications by injection of a small shim and usage of the JNI.[181]
In current versions of Android, 'Toybox', a collection of command-line utilities (mostly for use by apps, as Android doesn't provide a command-line interface by default), is used (since the release of Marshmallow) replacing a similar 'Toolbox' collection found in previous Android versions.[182]
Android has another operating system, Trusty OS, within it, as a part of 'Trusty' 'software components supporting a Trusted Execution Environment (TEE) on mobile devices.' 'Trusty and the Trusty API are subject to change. [.] Applications for the Trusty OS can be written in C/C++ (C++ support is limited), and they have access to a small C library. [.] All Trusty applications are single-threaded; multithreading in Trusty userspace currently is unsupported. [.] Third-party application development is not supported in' the current version, and software running on the OS and processor for it, run the 'DRM framework for protected content. [.] There are many other uses for a TEE such as mobile payments, secure banking, full-disk encryption, multi-factor authentication, device reset protection, replay-protected persistent storage, wireless display ('cast') of protected content, secure PIN and fingerprint processing, and even malware detection.'[183]
Open-source community
Android's source code is released by Google under an open source license, and its open nature has encouraged a large community of developers and enthusiasts to use the open-source code as a foundation for community-driven projects, which deliver updates to older devices, add new features for advanced users or bring Android to devices originally shipped with other operating systems.[184] These community-developed releases often bring new features and updates to devices faster than through the official manufacturer/carrier channels, with a comparable level of quality;[185] provide continued support for older devices that no longer receive official updates; or bring Android to devices that were officially released running other operating systems, such as the HP TouchPad. Community releases often come pre-rooted and contain modifications not provided by the original vendor, such as the ability to overclock or over/undervolt the device's processor.[186]CyanogenMod was the most widely used community firmware,[187] now discontinued and succeeded by LineageOS.[188]
Historically, device manufacturers and mobile carriers have typically been unsupportive of third-party firmware development. Manufacturers express concern about improper functioning of devices running unofficial software and the support costs resulting from this.[189] Moreover, modified firmware such as CyanogenMod sometimes offer features, such as tethering, for which carriers would otherwise charge a premium. As a result, technical obstacles including locked bootloaders and restricted access to root permissions are common in many devices. However, as community-developed software has grown more popular, and following a statement by the Librarian of Congress in the United States that permits the 'jailbreaking' of mobile devices,[190] manufacturers and carriers have softened their position regarding third party development, with some, including HTC,[189]Motorola,[191]Samsung[192][193] and Sony,[194] providing support and encouraging development. As a result of this, over time the need to circumvent hardware restrictions to install unofficial firmware has lessened as an increasing number of devices are shipped with unlocked or unlockable bootloaders, similar to Nexus series of phones, although usually requiring that users waive their devices' warranties to do so.[189] However, despite manufacturer acceptance, some carriers in the US still require that phones are locked down, frustrating developers and customers.[195]
Device codenames
Internally, Android identifies each supported device by its device codename, a short string[196], which may or may not be similar to the model name used in marketing the device. For example, the device codename of the Pixel smartphone is sailfish.
The device codename is usually not visible to the end user, but is important for determining compatibility with modified Android versions. It is sometimes also mentioned in articles discussing a device, because it allows to distinguish different hardware variants of a device, even if the manufacturer offers them under the same name. The device codename is available to running applications under
android.os.Build.DEVICE [197].
Security and privacyScope of surveillance by public institutions
As part of the broader 2013 mass surveillance disclosures it was revealed in September 2013 that the American and British intelligence agencies, the National Security Agency (NSA) and Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), respectively, have access to the user data on iPhone, BlackBerry, and Android devices. They are reportedly able to read almost all smartphone information, including SMS, location, emails, and notes.[198] In January 2014, further reports revealed the intelligence agencies' capabilities to intercept the personal information transmitted across the Internet by social networks and other popular applications such as Angry Birds, which collect personal information of their users for advertising and other commercial reasons. GCHQ has, according to The Guardian, a wiki-style guide of different apps and advertising networks, and the different data that can be siphoned from each.[199] Later that week, the Finnish Angry Birds developer Rovio announced that it was reconsidering its relationships with its advertising platforms in the light of these revelations, and called upon the wider industry to do the same.[200]
The documents revealed a further effort by the intelligence agencies to intercept Google Maps searches and queries submitted from Android and other smartphones to collect location information in bulk.[199] The NSA and GCHQ insist their activities are in compliance with all relevant domestic and international laws, although the Guardian stated 'the latest disclosures could also add to mounting public concern about how the technology sector collects and uses information, especially for those outside the US, who enjoy fewer privacy protections than Americans.'[199]
Leaked documents published by WikiLeaks, codenamed Vault 7 and dated from 2013â2016, detail the capabilities of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and cyber warfare, including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones (including Android).[201][202]
Common security threats
Research from security company Trend Micro lists premium service abuse as the most common type of Android malware, where text messages are sent from infected phones to premium-rate telephone numbers without the consent or even knowledge of the user. Other malware displays unwanted and intrusive advertisements on the device, or sends personal information to unauthorised third parties.[203] Security threats on Android are reportedly growing exponentially; however, Google engineers have argued that the malware and virus threat on Android is being exaggerated by security companies for commercial reasons,[204][205] and have accused the security industry of playing on fears to sell virus protection software to users.[204] Google maintains that dangerous malware is actually extremely rare,[205] and a survey conducted by F-Secure showed that only 0.5% of Android malware reported had come from the Google Play store.[206]
In August 2015, Google announced that devices in the Google Nexus series would begin to receive monthly security patches. Google also wrote that 'Nexus devices will continue to receive major updates for at least two years and security patches for the longer of three years from initial availability or 18 months from last sale of the device via the Google Store.'[207][208][209] The following October, researchers at the University of Cambridge concluded that 87.7% of Android phones in use had known but unpatched security vulnerabilities due to lack of updates and support.[210][211][212] Ron Amadeo of Ars Technica wrote also in August 2015 that 'Android was originally designed, above all else, to be widely adopted. Google was starting from scratch with zero percent market share, so it was happy to give up control and give everyone a seat at the table in exchange for adoption. [..] Now, though, Android has around 75â80 percent of the worldwide smartphone marketâmaking it not just the world's most popular mobile operating system but arguably the most popular operating system, period. As such, security has become a big issue. Android still uses a software update chain-of-command designed back when the Android ecosystem had zero devices to update, and it just doesn't work'.[213] Following news of Google's monthly schedule, some manufacturers, including Samsung and LG, promised to issue monthly security updates,[214] but, as noted by Jerry Hildenbrand in Android Central in February 2016, 'instead we got a few updates on specific versions of a small handful of models. And a bunch of broken promises'.[215]
In a March 2017 post on Google's Security Blog, Android security leads Adrian Ludwig and Mel Miller wrote that 'More than 735 million devices from 200+ manufacturers received a platform security update in 2016' and that 'Our carrier and hardware partners helped expand deployment of these updates, releasing updates for over half of the top 50 devices worldwide in the last quarter of 2016'. They also wrote that 'About half of devices in use at the end of 2016 had not received a platform security update in the previous year', stating that their work would continue to focus on streamlining the security updates program for easier deployment by manufacturers.[216] Furthermore, in a comment to TechCrunch, Ludwig stated that the wait time for security updates had been reduced from 'six to nine weeks down to just a few days', with 78% of flagship devices in North America being up-to-date on security at the end of 2016.[217]
Patches to bugs found in the core operating system often do not reach users of older and lower-priced devices.[218][219] However, the open-source nature of Android allows security contractors to take existing devices and adapt them for highly secure uses. For example, Samsung has worked with General Dynamics through their Open Kernel Labs acquisition to rebuild Jelly Bean on top of their hardened microvisor for the 'Knox' project.[220][221]
Android smartphones have the ability to report the location of Wi-Fi access points, encountered as phone users move around, to build databases containing the physical locations of hundreds of millions of such access points. These databases form electronic maps to locate smartphones, allowing them to run apps like Foursquare, Google Latitude, Facebook Places, and to deliver location-based ads.[222] Third party monitoring software such as TaintDroid,[223] an academic research-funded project, can, in some cases, detect when personal information is being sent from applications to remote servers.[224]
Technical security features
Android applications run in a sandbox, an isolated area of the system that does not have access to the rest of the system's resources, unless access permissions are explicitly granted by the user when the application is installed, however this may not be possible for pre-installed apps. It is not possible, for example, to turn off the microphone access of the pre-installed camera app without disabling the camera completely. This is valid also in Android versions 7 and 8.[225]
Since February 2012, Google has used its Google Bouncer malware scanner to watch over and scan apps available in the Google Play store.[226][227] A 'Verify Apps' feature was introduced in November 2012, as part of the Android 4.2 'Jelly Bean' operating system version, to scan all apps, both from Google Play and from third-party sources, for malicious behavior.[228] Originally only doing so during installation, Verify Apps received an update in 2014 to 'constantly' scan apps, and in 2017 the feature was made visible to users through a menu in Settings.[229][230]
Before installing an application, the Google Play store displays a list of the requirements an app needs to function. After reviewing these permissions, the user can choose to accept or refuse them, installing the application only if they accept.[231] In Android 6.0 'Marshmallow', the permissions system was changed; apps are no longer automatically granted all of their specified permissions at installation time. An opt-in system is used instead, in which users are prompted to grant or deny individual permissions to an app when they are needed for the first time. Applications remember the grants, which can be revoked by the user at any time. Pre-installed apps, however, are not always part of this approach. In some cases it may not be possible to deny certain permissions to pre-installed apps, nor be possible to disable them. The Google Play Services app cannot be uninstalled, nor disabled. Any force stop attempt, result in the app restarting itself.[232][233] The new permissions model is used only by applications developed for Marshmallow using its software development kit (SDK), and older apps will continue to use the previous all-or-nothing approach. Permissions can still be revoked for those apps, though this might prevent them from working properly, and a warning is displayed to that effect.[234][235]
In September 2014, Jason Nova of Android Authority reported on a study by the German security company Fraunhofer AISEC in antivirus software and malware threats on Android. Nova wrote that 'The Android operating system deals with software packages by sandboxing them; this does not allow applications to list the directory contents of other apps to keep the system safe. By not allowing the antivirus to list the directories of other apps after installation, applications that show no inherent suspicious behavior when downloaded are cleared as safe. If then later on parts of the app are activated that turn out to be malicious, the antivirus will have no way to know since it is inside the app and out of the antivirusâ jurisdiction'. The study by Fraunhofer AISEC, examining antivirus software from Avast, AVG, Bitdefender, ESET, F-Secure, Kaspersky, Lookout, McAfee (formerly Intel Security), Norton, Sophos, and Trend Micro, revealed that 'the tested antivirus apps do not provide protection against customized malware or targeted attacks', and that 'the tested antivirus apps were also not able to detect malware which is completely unknown to date but does not make any efforts to hide its malignity'.[236]
In August 2013, Google announced Android Device Manager (renamed Find My Device in May 2017),[237][238] a service that allows users to remotely track, locate, and wipe their Android device,[239][240] with an Android app for the service released in December.[241][242] In December 2016, Google introduced a Trusted Contacts app, letting users request location-tracking of loved ones during emergencies.[243][244]
On October 8, 2018 Google announced new Google Play store requirements to combat over-sharing of potentially sensitive information, including call and text logs. The issue stems from the fact that many apps request permissions to access user's personal information (even if this information is not needed for the app to function) and some users unquestionably grant these permissions. Alternatively, a permission might be listed in the app manifest as required (as opposed to optional) and app would not install unless user grants the permission; user can withdraw any, even required, permission from any app in the device settings after app installation, but few users do this. Google promised to work with developers and create exceptions if their apps require Phone or SMS permissions for 'core app functionality'. The new policies enforcement started on January 6, 2019, 90 days after policy announcement on October 8, 2018. Furthermore, Google announced a new 'target API level requirement' (
targetSdkVersion in manifest) at least Android 8.0 (API level 26) for all new apps and app updates. The API level requirement might combat practice of app developers bypassing some permission screens by specifying early Android versions that had more coarse permission model.[245][246]Licensing
The source code for Android is open-source: it is developed in private by Google, with the source code released publicly when a new version of Android is released. Google publishes most of the code (including network and telephony stacks) under the non-copyleftApache License version 2.0. which allows modification and redistribution.[247][248] The license does not grant rights to the 'Android' trademark, so device manufacturers and wireless carriers have to license it from Google under individual contracts. Associated Linux kernel changes are released under the copyleftGNU General Public License version 2, developed by the Open Handset Alliance, with the source code publicly available at all times. Typically, Google collaborates with a hardware manufacturer to produce a flagship device (part of the Nexus series) featuring the new version of Android, then makes the source code available after that device has been released.[249] The only Android release which was not immediately made available as source code was the tablet-only 3.0 Honeycomb release. The reason, according to Andy Rubin in an official Android blog post, was because Honeycomb was rushed for production of the Motorola Xoom,[250] and they did not want third parties creating a 'really bad user experience' by attempting to put onto smartphones a version of Android intended for tablets.[251]
Only the base Android operating system (including some applications) is open-source software, whereas most Android devices ship with a substantial amount of proprietary software, such as Google Mobile Services, which includes applications such as Google Play Store, Google Search, and Google Play Services â a software layer that provides APIs for the integration with Google-provided services, among others. These applications must be licensed from Google by device makers, and can only be shipped on devices which meet its compatibility guidelines and other requirements.[86] Custom, certified distributions of Android produced by manufacturers (such as TouchWiz and HTC Sense) may also replace certain stock Android apps with their own proprietary variants and add additional software not included in the stock Android operating system.[85] There may also be 'binary blob' drivers required for certain hardware components in the device.[85][127]
Richard Stallman and the Free Software Foundation have been critical of Android and have recommended the usage of alternatives such as Replicant, because drivers and firmware vital for the proper functioning of Android devices are usually proprietary, and because the Google Play Store application can forcibly install or uninstall applications and, as a result, invite non-free software; although the Free Software Foundation has not found Google to use it for malicious reasons.[252][253]
Leverage over manufacturers
Google licenses their Google Mobile Services software, along with Android trademarks, only to hardware manufacturers for devices that meet Google's compatibility standards specified in the Android Compatibility Program document.[254] Thus, forks of Android that make major changes to the operating system itself do not include any of Google's non-free components, stay incompatible with applications that require them, and must ship with an alternative software marketplace in lieu of Google Play Store.[85] Examples of such Android forks are Amazon's Fire OS (which is used on the Kindle Fire line of tablets, and oriented toward Amazon services), the Nokia X Software Platform (a fork used by the Nokia X family, oriented primarily toward Nokia and Microsoft services), and other forks that exclude Google apps due to the general unavailability of Google services in certain regions (such as China).[255][256] In 2014, Google also began to require that all Android devices which license the Google Mobile Services software display a prominent 'Powered by Android' logo on their boot screens.[86] Google has also enforced preferential bundling and placement of Google Mobile Services on devices, including mandated bundling of the entire main suite of Google applications, and that shortcuts to Google Search and the Play Store app must be present on or near the main home screen page in its default configuration.[257]
Some stock applications and components in AOSP code that were formerly used by earlier versions of Android, such as Search, Music, Calendar, and the location API, were abandoned by Google in favor of non-free replacements distributed through Play Store (Google Search, Google Play Music, and Google Calendar) and Google Play Services, which are no longer open-source. Moreover, open-source variants of some applications also exclude functions that are present in their non-free versions, such as Photosphere panoramas in Camera, and a Google Now page on the default home screen (exclusive to the proprietary version 'Google Now Launcher', whose code is embedded within that of the main Google application).[85][258][259][260] These measures are likely intended to discourage forks and encourage commercial licensing in line with Google requirements, as the majority of the operating system's core functionality (and in turn, third-party software), are dependent on proprietary components licensed exclusively by Google, and it would take significant development resources to develop an alternative suite of software and APIs to replicate or replace them. Apps that do not use Google components would also be at a functional disadvantage, as they can only use APIs contained within the OS itself.[261]
Running out of time 2 full movie english subtitle ep11. In March 2018, it was reported that Google had begun to block 'uncertified' Android devices from using Google Mobile Services software, and display a warning indicating that 'the device manufacturer has preloaded Google apps and services without certification from Google'. Users of custom ROMs are able to register their device ID to their Google account to remove this block.[262]
Members of the Open Handset Alliance, which include the majority of Android OEMs, are also contractually forbidden from producing Android devices based on forks of the OS;[85][263] in 2012, Acer Inc. was forced by Google to halt production on a device powered by Alibaba Group's Aliyun OS with threats of removal from the OHA, as Google deemed the platform to be an incompatible version of Android. Alibaba Group defended the allegations, arguing that the OS was a distinct platform from Android (primarily using HTML5 apps), but incorporated portions of Android's platform to allow backwards compatibility with third-party Android software. Indeed, the devices did ship with an application store which offered Android apps; however, the majority of them were pirated.[264][265][266]
Reception
Android received a lukewarm reaction when it was unveiled in 2007. Although analysts were impressed with the respected technology companies that had partnered with Google to form the Open Handset Alliance, it was unclear whether mobile phone manufacturers would be willing to replace their existing operating systems with Android.[267] The idea of an open-source, Linux-based development platform sparked interest,[268] but there were additional worries about Android facing strong competition from established players in the smartphone market, such as Nokia and Microsoft, and rival Linux mobile operating systems that were in development.[269] These established players were skeptical: Nokia was quoted as saying 'we don't see this as a threat,' and a member of Microsoft's Windows Mobile team stated 'I don't understand the impact that they are going to have.'[270]
Since then Android has grown to become the most widely used smartphone operating system[271][272] and 'one of the fastest mobile experiences available'.[273] Reviewers have highlighted the open-source nature of the operating system as one of its defining strengths, allowing companies such as Nokia (Nokia X family),[274] Amazon (Kindle Fire), Barnes & Noble (Nook), Ouya, Baidu and others to fork the software and release hardware running their own customised version of Android. As a result, it has been described by technology website Ars Technica as 'practically the default operating system for launching new hardware' for companies without their own mobile platforms.[271] This openness and flexibility is also present at the level of the end user: Android allows extensive customisation of devices by their owners and apps are freely available from non-Google app stores and third party websites. These have been cited as among the main advantages of Android phones over others.[271][275]
Despite Android's popularity, including an activation rate three times that of iOS, there have been reports that Google has not been able to leverage their other products and web services successfully to turn Android into the money maker that analysts had expected.[276]The Verge suggested that Google is losing control of Android due to the extensive customization and proliferation of non-Google apps and services â Amazon's Kindle Fire line uses Fire OS, a heavily modified fork of Android which does not include or support any of Google's proprietary components, and requires that users obtain software from its competing Amazon Appstore instead of Play Store.[85] In 2014, in an effort to improve prominence of the Android brand, Google began to require that devices featuring its proprietary components display an Android logo on the boot screen.[86]
Android has suffered from 'fragmentation',[277] a situation where the variety of Android devices, in terms of both hardware variations and differences in the software running on them, makes the task of developing applications that work consistently across the ecosystem harder than rival platforms such as iOS where hardware and software varies less. For example, according to data from OpenSignal in July 2013, there were 11,868 models of Android device, numerous different screen sizes and eight Android OS versions simultaneously in use, while the large majority of iOS users have upgraded to the latest iteration of that OS.[278] Critics such as Apple Insider have asserted that fragmentation via hardware and software pushed Android's growth through large volumes of low end, budget-priced devices running older versions of Android. They maintain this forces Android developers to write for the 'lowest common denominator' to reach as many users as possible, who have too little incentive to make use of the latest hardware or software features only available on a smaller percentage of devices.[279] However, OpenSignal, who develops both Android and iOS apps, concluded that although fragmentation can make development trickier, Android's wider global reach also increases the potential reward.[278]
Market share
Research company Canalys estimated in the second quarter of 2009, that Android had a 2.8% share of worldwide smartphone shipments.[280] By May 2010, Android had a 10% worldwide smartphone market share, overtaking Windows Mobile,[281] whilst in the US Android held a 28% share, overtaking iPhone OS.[282] By the fourth quarter of 2010, its worldwide share had grown to 33% of the market becoming the top-selling smartphone platform,[283] overtaking Symbian.[284] In the US it became the top-selling platform in April 2011, overtaking BlackBerry OS with a 31.2% smartphone share, according to comScore.[285]
By the third quarter of 2011, Gartner estimated that more than half (52.5%) of the smartphone sales belonged to Android.[286] By the third quarter of 2012 Android had a 75% share of the global smartphone market according to the research firm IDC.[287]
In July 2011, Google said that 550,000 Android devices were being activated every day,[288] up from 400,000 per day in May,[289] and more than 100 million devices had been activated[290] with 4.4% growth per week.[288] In September 2012, 500 million devices had been activated with 1.3 million activations per day.[291][292] In May 2013, at Google I/O, Sundar Pichai announced that 900 million Android devices had been activated.[293]
Android market share varies by location. In July 2012, 'mobile subscribers aged 13+' in the United States using Android were up to 52%,[294] and rose to 90% in China.[295] During the third quarter of 2012, Android's worldwide smartphone shipment market share was 75%,[287] with 750 million devices activated in total. In April 2013 Android had 1.5 million activations per day.[292] As of May 2013, 48 billion applications ('apps') have been installed from the Google Play store,[296] and by September 2013, one billion Android devices have been activated.[297]
As of February 2017, the Google Play store has over 2.7 million Android applications published,[298] and As of May 2016, apps have been downloaded more than 65 billion times.[299] The operating system's success has made it a target for patent litigation as part of the so-called 'smartphone wars' between technology companies.[300][301]
Android devices account for more than half of smartphone sales in most markets, including the US, while 'only in Japan was Apple on top' (SeptemberâNovember 2013 numbers).[302] At the end of 2013, over 1.5 billion Android smartphones have been sold in the four years since 2010,[303][304] making Android the most sold phone and tablet OS. Three billion Android smartphones are estimated to be sold by the end of 2014 (including previous years). According to Gartner research company, Android-based devices outsold all contenders, every year since 2012.[305] In 2013, it outsold Windows 2.8:1 or by 573 million.[306][307][308] As of 2015, Android has the largest installed base of all operating systems;[18] Since 2013, devices running it also sell more than Windows, iOS and Mac OS X devices combined.[309]
According to StatCounter, which tracks only the use for browsing the web, Android is the most popular mobile operating system since August 2013.[310] Android is the most popular operating system for web browsing in India and several other countries (e.g. virtually all of Asia, with Japan and North Korea exceptions). According to StatCounter, Android is most used on mobile in all African countries, and it stated 'mobile usage has already overtaken desktop in several countries including India, South Africa and Saudi Arabia',[311] with virtually all countries in Africa having done so already (except for seven countries, including Egypt), such as Ethiopia and Kenya in which mobile (including tablets) usage is at 90.46% (Android only, accounts for 75.81% of all use there).[312][313]
While Android phones in the Western world commonly include Google's proprietary add-ons (such as Google Play) to the otherwise open-source operating system, this is increasingly not the case in emerging markets; 'ABI Research claims that 65 million devices shipped globally with open-source Android in the second quarter of [2014], up from 54 million in the first quarter'; depending on country, percent of phones estimated to be based only on AOSP source code, forgoing the Android trademark: Thailand (44%), Philippines (38%), Indonesia (31%), India (21%), Malaysia (24%), Mexico (18%), Brazil (9%).[314]
According to a January 2015 Gartner report, 'Android surpassed a billion shipments of devices in 2014, and will continue to grow at a double-digit pace in 2015, with a 26 percent increase year over year.' This made it the first time that any general-purpose operating system has reached more than one billion end users within a year: by reaching close to 1.16 billion end users in 2014, Android shipped over four times more than iOS and OS X combined, and over three times more than Microsoft Windows. Gartner expected the whole mobile phone market to 'reach two billion units in 2016', including Android.[315] Describing the statistics, Farhad Manjoo wrote in The New York Times that 'About one of every two computers sold today is running Android. [It] has become Earth's dominant computing platform.'[18]
According to a Statistica's estimate, Android smartphones had an installed base of 1.8 billion units in 2015, which was 76% of the estimated total number of smartphones worldwide.[316][317][a] Android has the largest installed base of any mobile operating system and, since 2013, the highest-selling operating system overall[306][309][319][320][321] with sales in 2012, 2013 and 2014[322] close to the installed base of all PCs.[323]
In the second quarter of 2014, Android's share of the global smartphone shipment market was 84.7%, a new record.[324][325] This had grown to 87.5% worldwide market share by the third quarter of 2016,[326] leaving main competitor iOS with 12.1% market share.[327]
According to an April 2017 StatCounter report, Android overtook Microsoft Windows to become the most popular operating system for total Internet usage.[328][329] It has maintained the plurality since then.[330]
In September 2015, Google announced that Android had 1.4 billion monthly active users.[331][332] This changed to 2 billion monthly active users in May 2017.[333][334]
Adoption on tablets
The first-generation Nexus 7 tablet, running Android 4.1 Jelly Bean
Despite its success on smartphones, initially Android tablet adoption was slow.[335] One of the main causes was the chicken or the egg situation where consumers were hesitant to buy an Android tablet due to a lack of high quality tablet applications, but developers were hesitant to spend time and resources developing tablet applications until there was a significant market for them.[336][337] The content and app 'ecosystem' proved more important than hardware specs as the selling point for tablets. Due to the lack of Android tablet-specific applications in 2011, early Android tablets had to make do with existing smartphone applications that were ill-suited to larger screen sizes, whereas the dominance of Apple's iPad was reinforced by the large number of tablet-specific iOS applications.[337][338]
Despite app support in its infancy, a considerable number of Android tablets, like the Barnes & Noble Nook (alongside those using other operating systems, such as the HP TouchPad and BlackBerry PlayBook) were rushed out to market in an attempt to capitalize on the success of the iPad.[337]InfoWorld has suggested that some Android manufacturers initially treated their first tablets as a 'Frankenphone business', a short-term low-investment opportunity by placing a smartphone-optimized Android OS (before Android 3.0 Honeycomb for tablets was available) on a device while neglecting user interface. This approach, such as with the Dell Streak, failed to gain market traction with consumers as well as damaging the early reputation of Android tablets.[339][340] Furthermore, several Android tablets such as the Motorola Xoom were priced the same or higher than the iPad, which hurt sales. An exception was the AmazonKindle Fire, which relied upon lower pricing as well as access to Amazon's ecosystem of applications and content.[337][341]
This began to change in 2012, with the release of the affordable Nexus 7 and a push by Google for developers to write better tablet applications.[342] According to International Data Corporation, shipments of Android-powered tablets surpassed iPads in Q3 2012.[343]
Barnes & Noble Nook running Android
As of the end of 2013, over 191.6 million Android tablets had sold in three years since 2011.[344][345] This made Android tablets the most-sold type of tablet in 2013, surpassing iPads in the second quarter of 2013.[346]
According to StatCounter's web use statistics, as of August 15, 2017, Android tablets represent the majority of tablet devices used in South America (57.46%)[347] and Africa (69.08%),[348] while being a distant second to iOS in North America (25.29%) and Europe (32.64%), despite having sizeable majorities in many Central American, Caribbean, and Eastern European states.[349]) and representing the majority in Asia (51.25%)[350] notably in India (65.98%)[351] and Indonesia (82.18%).[352] Android is an extremely distant second at 11.93% in Oceania as well, mostly due to Australia (10.71%) and New Zealand (16.9%), while in some countries such as Nauru over 80% of tablets are believed to use Android.[353] As well, Android is more often than not used by the minority of web users in Antarctica, which has no permanent population.[354]
In March 2016, Galen Gruman of InfoWorld stated that Android devices could be a 'real part of your business [.] there's no longer a reason to keep Android at arm's length. It can now be as integral to your mobile portfolio as Apple's iOS devices are'.[355] A year earlier, Gruman had stated that Microsoft's own mobile Office apps were 'better on iOS and Android' than on Microsoft's own Windows 10 devices.[356]
Platform information
Android Oreo 8.1 is the single most used Android version.[357]
As of May 2019, 78.9% of devices have OpenGL ES 3.0 or higher.
Application piracy
In general, paid Android applications can easily be pirated.[359] In a May 2012 interview with Eurogamer, the developers of Football Manager stated that the ratio of pirated players vs legitimate players was 9:1 for their game Football Manager Handheld.[360] However, not every developer agreed that piracy rates were an issue; for example, in July 2012 the developers of the game Wind-up Knight said that piracy levels of their game were only 12%, and most of the piracy came from China, where people cannot purchase apps from Google Play.[361]
In 2010, Google released a tool for validating authorized purchases for use within apps, but developers complained that this was insufficient and trivial to crack. Google responded that the tool, especially its initial release, was intended as a sample framework for developers to modify and build upon depending on their needs, not as a finished piracy solution.[362] Android 'Jelly Bean' introduced the ability for paid applications to be encrypted, so that they may work only on the device for which they were purchased.[363][364]
Legal issues
The success of Android has made it a target for patent and copyright litigation between technology companies, both Android and Android phone manufacturers having been involved in numerous patent lawsuits and other legal challenges.
Patent lawsuit with Oracle
On August 12, 2010, Oracle sued Google over claimed infringement of copyrights and patents related to the Java programming language.[365] Oracle originally sought damages up to $6.1 billion,[366] but this valuation was rejected by a United States federal judge who asked Oracle to revise the estimate.[367] In response, Google submitted multiple lines of defense, counterclaiming that Android did not infringe on Oracle's patents or copyright, that Oracle's patents were invalid, and several other defenses. They said that Android's Java runtime environment is based on Apache Harmony, a clean room implementation of the Java class libraries, and an independently developed virtual machine called Dalvik.[368] In May 2012, the jury in this case found that Google did not infringe on Oracle's patents, and the trial judge ruled that the structure of the Java APIs used by Google was not copyrightable.[369][370] The parties agreed to zero dollars in statutory damages for a small amount of copied code.[371] On May 9, 2014, the Federal Circuit partially reversed the district court ruling, ruling in Oracle's favor on the copyrightability issue, and remanding the issue of fair use to the district court.[372][373]
In December 2015, Google announced that the next major release of Android (Android Nougat) would switch to OpenJDK, which is the official open-source implementation of the Java platform, instead of using the now-discontinued Apache Harmony project as its runtime. Code reflecting this change was also posted to the AOSP source repository.[177] In its announcement, Google claimed this was part of an effort to create a 'common code base' between Java on Android and other platforms.[178] Google later admitted in a court filing that this was part of an effort to address the disputes with Oracle, as its use of OpenJDK code is governed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) with a linking exception, and that 'any damages claim associated with the new versions expressly licensed by Oracle under OpenJDK would require a separate analysis of damages from earlier releases'.[177] In June 2016, a United States federal court ruled in favor of Google, stating that its use of the APIs was fair use.[374]
Anti-competitive challenges in Europe
In 2013, FairSearch, a lobbying organization supported by Microsoft, Oracle and others, filed a complaint regarding Android with the European Commission, alleging that its free-of-charge distribution model constituted anti-competitive predatory pricing. The Free Software Foundation Europe, whose donors include Google, disputed the Fairsearch allegations.[375] On April 20, 2016, the EU filed a formal antitrust complaint against Google based upon the FairSearch allegations, arguing that its leverage over Android vendors, including the mandatory bundling of the entire suite of proprietary Google software, hindering the ability for competing search providers to be integrated into Android, and barring vendors from producing devices running forks of Android, constituted anti-competitive practices.[376] In August 2016, Google was fined US$6.75 million by the Russian Federal Antimonopoly Service (FAS) under similar allegations by Yandex.[377] The European Commission issued its decision on July 18, 2018, determining that Google had conducted three antitrust operations related to Android: bundling Google's search and Chrome as part of Android, blocking phone manufacturers from using forked versions of Android, and establishing deals with phone manufacturers and network providers to exclusively bundle the Google search application on handsets (a practice Google ended by 2014). The EU fined Google for â¬4.3 billion (about US$5 billion) and required the company to end this conduct within 90 days.[378] Google filed its appeal of the ruling in October 2018, though will not ask for any interim measures to delay the onset of conduct requirements.[379]
On October 16, 2018, Google announced that it would change its distribution model for Google Mobile Services in the EU, since part of its revenues streams for Android which came through use of Google Search and Chrome were now prohibited by the EU's ruling. While the core Android system remains free, OEMs in Europe would be required to purchase a paid license to the core suite of Google applications, such as Gmail, Google Maps and the Google Play Store. Google Search will be licensed separately, with an option to include Google Chrome at no additional cost atop Search. European OEMs are able to bundle third-party alternatives on phones and devices sold to customers, if they so choose. OEMs will no longer be barred from selling any device running incompatible versions of Android in Europe.[380]
Others
In addition to lawsuits against Google directly, various proxy wars have been waged against Android indirectly by targeting manufacturers of Android devices, with the effect of discouraging manufacturers from adopting the platform by increasing the costs of bringing an Android device to market.[381] Both Apple and Microsoft have sued several manufacturers for patent infringement, with Apple's ongoing legal action against Samsung being a particularly high-profile case. In January 2012, Microsoft said they had signed patent license agreements with eleven Android device manufacturers, whose products account for '70 percent of all Android smartphones' sold in the US[382] and 55% of the worldwide revenue for Android devices.[383] These include Samsung and HTC.[384] Samsung's patent settlement with Microsoft included an agreement to allocate more resources to developing and marketing phones running Microsoft's Windows Phone operating system.[381] Microsoft has also tied its own Android software to patent licenses, requiring the bundling of Microsoft Office Mobile and Skype applications on Android devices to subsidize the licensing fees, while at the same time helping to promote its software lines.[385][386]
Google has publicly expressed its frustration for the current patent landscape in the United States, accusing Apple, Oracle and Microsoft of trying to take down Android through patent litigation, rather than innovating and competing with better products and services.[387] In August 2011, Google purchased Motorola Mobility for US$12.5 billion, which was viewed in part as a defensive measure to protect Android, since Motorola Mobility held more than 17,000 patents.[388][389] In December 2011, Google bought over a thousand patents from IBM.[390]
Other uses
Ouya, a video game console which runs Android
Google has developed several variations of Android for specific use cases, including Android Wear, later renamed Wear OS, for wearable devices such as wrist watches,[391][392]Android TV for televisions,[393][394] and Android Things for smart devices and Internet of things.[395][396] Additionally, by providing infrastructure that combines dedicated hardware and dedicated applications running on regular Android, Google have opened up the platform for its use in particular usage scenarios, such as Android Auto for cars,[397][398] and Daydream, a Virtual Reality platform.[399]
The open and customizable nature of Android allows device makers to use it on other electronics as well, including laptops, netbooks,[400][401] and desktop computers,[402] cameras,[403] headphones,[404] home automation systems, game consoles,[405] media players,[406] satellites,[407]routers,[408]printers,[409]payment terminals,[410]automated teller machines,[411] and robots.[412] Additionally, Android has been installed and run on a variety of less-technical objects, including calculators,[413]single-board computers,[414]feature phones,[415]electronic dictionaries,[416]alarm clocks,[417] refrigerators,[418]landline telephones,[419] coffee machines,[420]bicycles,[421] and mirrors.[405]
Ouya, a video game console running Android, became one of the most successful Kickstarter campaigns, crowdfunding US$8.5m for its development,[422][423] and was later followed by other Android-based consoles, such as Nvidia's Shield Portable â an Android device in a video game controller form factor.[424]
In 2011, Google demonstrated 'Android@Home', a home automation technology which uses Android to control a range of household devices including light switches, power sockets and thermostats.[425] Prototype light bulbs were announced that could be controlled from an Android phone or tablet, but Android head Andy Rubin was cautious to note that 'turning a lightbulb on and off is nothing new', pointing to numerous failed home automation services. Google, he said, was thinking more ambitiously and the intention was to use their position as a cloud services provider to bring Google products into customers' homes.[426][427]
Android-x86 running on an ASUS Eee PC netbook
Parrot unveiled an Android-based car stereo system known as Asteroid in 2011,[428] followed by a successor, the touchscreen-based Asteroid Smart, in 2012.[429] In 2013, Clarion released its own Android-based car stereo, the AX1.[430] In January 2014, at the Consumer Electronics Show (CES), Google announced the formation of the Open Automotive Alliance, a group including several major automobile makers (Audi, General Motors, Hyundai, and Honda) and Nvidia, which aims to produce Android-based in-car entertainment systems for automobiles, '[bringing] the best of Android into the automobile in a safe and seamless way.'[431]
Android comes preinstalled on a few laptops (a similar functionality of running Android applications is also available in Google's Chrome OS) and can also be installed on personal computers by end users.[432] On those platforms Android provides additional functionality for physical keyboards[433] and mice, together with the 'Alt-Tab' key combination for switching applications quickly with a keyboard. In December 2014, one reviewer commented that Android's notification system is 'vastly more complete and robust than in most environments' and that Android is 'absolutely usable' as one's primary desktop operating system.[434]
In October 2015, The Wall Street Journal reported that Android will serve as Google's future main laptop operating system, with the plan to fold Chrome OS into it by 2017.[435][436] Google's Sundar Pichai, who led the development of Android, explained that 'mobile as a computing paradigm is eventually going to blend with what we think of as desktop today.'[435] Also, back in 2009, Google co-founder Sergey Brin himself said that Chrome OS and Android would 'likely converge over time.'[437] Lockheimer, who replaced Pichai as head of Android and Chrome OS, responded to this claim with an official Google blog post stating that 'While we've been working on ways to bring together the best of both operating systems, there's no plan to phase out Chrome OS [which has] guaranteed auto-updates for five years'.[438] That is unlike Android where support is shorter with 'EOL dates [being.] at least 3 years [into the future] for Android tablets for education'.[439]
At Google I/O in May 2016, Google announced Daydream, a virtual reality platform that relies on a smartphone and provides VR capabilities through a virtual reality headset and controller designed by Google itself.[399] The platform is built into Android starting with Android Nougat, differentiating from standalone support for VR capabilities. The software is available for developers, and was released in 2016.
Mascot
A giant Android mascot at Googleplex in 2008
The mascot of Android is a green android robot, as related to the software's name. Although it has no official name, the Android team at Google reportedly call it 'Bugdroid'.[440] Due to Android's high popularity in the 2010s, it has become one of the most recognizable icons in the technology world.[citation needed]
Qual O Sistema Base Do Android Mean
It was designed by then-Google graphic designer Irina Blok on November 5, 2007 when Android was announced. Contrary to reports that she was tasked with a project to create an icon,[441] Blok confirmed in an interview that she independently developed it and made it open source. The robot design was initially not presented to Google, but it quickly became commonplace in the Android development team, with various different variations of it created by the developers there who liked the figure, as it was free under a Creative Commons license.[442][443] Its popularity amongst the development team eventually led to Google adopting it as an official icon as part of the Android logo when it launched to consumers in 2008.
See alsoNotes
References
External links
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Android_(operating_system)&oldid=903370606'
A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an operating system for phones, tablets, smartwatches, or other mobile devices. While computers such as typical laptops are 'mobile', the operating systems usually used on them are not considered mobile ones, as they were originally designed for desktop computers that historically did not have or need specific mobile features. This distinction is becoming blurred in some newer operating systems that are hybrids made for both uses.
Mobile operating systems combine features of a personal computer operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems; a wireless inbuilt modem and SIM tray for telephony and data connection, a touchscreen, cellular, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Protected Access, Wi-Fi, Global Positioning System (GPS) mobile navigation, video- and single-frame picture cameras, speech recognition, voice recorder, music player, near field communication, and infrared blaster. By Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold with 86.2 percent running Android and 12.9 percent running iOS.[1] Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Windows, and in general smartphone use (even without tablets) outnumber desktop use.
Mobile devices with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems â the main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary real-time operating system which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious base stations to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.[2]
Mobile operating systems have majority use since 2017 (measured by web use); with even only the smartphones running them (excluding tablets) more used than any other kind of device.[3] Thus traditional desktop OS is now a minority used kind of OS; see usage share of operating systems. However, variations occur in popularity by regions, while desktop-minority also applies on some days in regions such as United States and United Kingdom.
Android Os DownloadTimeline[edit]
Mobile operating system milestones mirror the development of mobile phones and smartphones:
Pre-1993[edit]
1993â1999[edit]
2000s[edit]
2010s[edit]2010[edit]
2011[edit]
2012[edit]
2013[edit]
2014[edit]
2015[edit]
2016[edit]
2017[edit]
2018[edit]
2019[edit]
Current software platforms[edit]
These operating systems often run atop baseband or other real time operating systems that handle hardware aspects of the phone.
Open source[edit]Android[edit]
Android 6.x Marshmallow on a Google Nexus 5X
Android (based on the modified Linux kernel) is a mobile operating system developed by Google Inc.[8] Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for general purpose computers (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) personal computers (PCs). Although the Android operating system is free and open-source software,[9] in devices sold, much of the software bundled with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is proprietary software and closed source.[10]
Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets, Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones, while both phone and tablet compatibility was merged with Android 4.0. The current Android version is 9.0 Pie.
Google Android operating system
Android's releases are named after sweets or dessert items, except for the first and second releases:
Android One is a software experience that runs on the unmodified Android operating system, which closely resembles those running on Pixel devices or previously, the Google Nexus program. Unlike most of the 'stock' Androids running on the market, Android One UI closely resembles the Pixel UI, due to Android One being a software experience developed by Google and distributed to partners who signup for the program, such as Nokia and Xiaomi. Thus, the overall UI is intended to be as clean as possible. OEM partners may tweak or add additional apps such as cameras to the firmware, otherwise most of the apps will be handled by Google proprietary apps. The update was handled by Google and will be internally tested by OEM before being distributed via OTA update to the end users.
Designed by Alibaba, based on Android.
Amazfit OS a mobile operating system that are based on Android, it is develop by Xiaomi backed Huami for their higher-end Amazfit series of smartwatch, such as Amazfit Pace, Verge and Stratos. Due to it was Android based operating system, therefore it can be side loaded with Android APK file to run on the smartwatch. Similar to MIUI, although Amazfit OS is based on open source AOSP, it consists of closed source and proprietary software of its own.
BlackBerry Secure is an operating system developed by BlackBerry, based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). Officially announced the name for their Android based front-end touch interface on August 2017, before the announcement, BlackBerry Secure was running on BlackBerry brand devices such as BlackBerry Priv, DTEK 50/60 and BlackBerryKeyOne. Currently, BlackBerry plan to license out the BlackBerry Secure to other OEM's.
ColorOS is a custom front-end touch interface, based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP) and is developed by OPPO Electronics Corp. As of 2016, OPPO officially releases ColorOS with every OPPO device, and released an official ROM for the OnePlus One.
Emotion User Interface (EMUI) is a front-end touch interface developed by Huawei Technologies Co. Ltd. and is based on Google's Android Open Source Project (AOSP). EMUI is preinstalled on most Huawei and Honor devices. While it was based on open source Android operating system, it consists of closed source and proprietary software.
/e/ is an operating system forked from the source code of LineageOS (based on Android). It supports currently 76 devices as of April 2019.[15] /e/ targets Android smart phone devices, and uses MicroG as a replacement for Google Play Services.[16]
Flyme OS is an operating system developed by Meizu Technology Co., Ltd., an open source OS based on GoogleAndroid Open Source Project (AOSP). Flyme OS is mainly installed on Meizu Smartphones such as the MX's series; however, it also has official ROM support for a few Android devices.
Funtouch OS is a fork of an Android developed by Vivo. Funtouch OS is difference than traditional Android UI that the Funtouch OS includes some features unavailable in the former, such as:- customizable gestures, communication drawer with bottom to top swipe, a security centre, lock screen resize, options for long screen shot, eye protection changing to a warmer color temperature and others. Funtouch OS, in some respects, looks similar to iOS made by Apple.
HTC Sense is a software suite developed by HTC, used primarily on the company's Android-based devices. Serving as a successor to HTC's TouchFLO 3D software for Windows Mobile, Sense modifies many aspects of the Android user experience, incorporating added features (such as an altered home screen and keyboard), widgets, HTC-developed applications, and redesigned applications. The first device with Sense, the HTC Hero, was released in 2009.
Indus OS is a custom mobile operating system based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). It is developed by the Indus OS team based in India. No longer valid as of 2018Indus OS is available on Micromax, Intex, Karbonn, and other Indian smartphone brands.
LG UX (formerly named Optimus UI) is a front-end touch interface developed by LG Electronics with partners, featuring a full touch user interface. It is sometimes incorrectly identified as an operating system. LG UX is used internally by LG for sophisticated feature phones and tablet computers, and is not available for licensing by external parties.
Optimus UI 2 which based on Android 4.1.2 has been released on the Optimus K II and the Optimus Neo 3. It features a more refined user interface compared to the prior version based on Android 4.1.1, would include together which new functionality such as voice shutter and quick memo.
Lineage Android Distribution is a custom mobile operating system based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). It serves as the successor to the highly popular custom ROM, CyanogenMod, from which it was forked in December 2016 when Cyanogen Inc. announced it was discontinuing development and shut down the infrastructure behind the project. Since Cyanogen Inc. retained the rights to the Cyanogen name, the project rebranded its fork as LineageOS.
Similar to CyanogenMod, it does not include any proprietary apps unless the user installs them. It allows Android users who can no longer obtain update support from their manufacturer to continue updating their OS version to the latest one based on official release from Google AOSP and heavy theme customization.
MiFavor, was the custom Android UI that was developed by ZTE for their smartphone that is running Android platform. Similar to most of the other Android UI, MiFavor replace most of the stock apps with ZTE owns apps, however the all UX still closely similar to the stock Android.
Mi User Interface (MIUI), developed by the Chinese electronic company Xiaomi Inc., is a mobile operating system based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). MIUI is mostly found in Xiaomi smartphones such as the Mi and Redmi Series; however, it also has official ROM support for few Android devices. Although MIUI is based on AOSP, which is open source, it consists of closed source and proprietary software of its own.
MIUI for POCO is a custom mobile operating system that is based on MIUI, which itself was based on Android 'Open Source Project (AOSP)'. Just like it predecessor, it also develop by Xiaomi Inc. Unlike the original MIUI, MIUI for POCO was specifically customized for their Poco series smartphone, including difference UI and more frequent update compare to the original MIUI. Just like MIUI which is based on open source AOSP, MIUI for POCO also consists of closed source and proprietary software of its own.
OxygenOS is based on the open source Android Open Source Project (AOSP) and is developed by OnePlus to replace Cyanogen OS on OnePlus devices such as the OnePlus One, and it is preinstalled on the OnePlus 2, OnePlus X, OnePlus 3, OnePlus 3T, OnePlus 5, OnePlus 5T and OnePlus 6.[18] As stated by Oneplus, OxygenOS is focused on stabilizing and maintaining of stock like those found on Nexus devices. It consists of mainly Google apps and minor UI customization to maintain the sleekness of pure Android.
Pixel UI is developed by Google that is based on open source Android. Unlike the Nexus phones, where Google shipped with the 'stock' Android, the UI that came with the first generation Pixel phones were slightly modified as compared to the 'stock' Android. As part of the Google Pixel software, the Pixel UI and its home launcher are closed source and proprietary, thus it is only available on the Pixel family devices. (However, third party mods allow non Pixel smartphones to install Pixel Launcher with Google Now feed integration).
Replicant is a custom mobile operating system based on the Android with all proprietary drivers and bloat closed source software removed.
Samsung Experience (formerly called TouchWiz) is a front-end touch interface developed by Samsung Electronics with partners, featuring a full touch user interface. It is sometimes incorrectly identified as an independent operating system. Samsung Experience is used internally by Samsung for smartphones, feature phones and tablet computers, and is not available for licensing by external parties as it is closed source and proprietary. The Android version of Samsung Experience also comes with Samsung-made apps preloaded (except starting with the Galaxy S6 which have removed all Samsung pre-loaded apps installed, leaving one with Galaxy Apps, to save storage space and initially due to the removal of MicroSD). With the release of Samsung Galaxy S8 and S8+, Samsung Experience 8.1 was preinstall on it with introducing new function known as Samsung DeX. Similar to the concept of Microsoft Continuum, Samsung DeX allowed high end Galaxy devices such as S8/S8+ or Note 8 to connect into a docking station, which extends the functionality to allow desktop-like functionality by connecting a keyboard, mouse, and monitor. Samsung also announced 'Linux on Galaxy', which allows to use the standard Linux distribution on the DeX platform.
Sony Xperia UI, (formerly known as Timescape UI), was the front-end UI that developed by Sony Mobile (formerly Sony Ericsson) for their Sony Xperia series that is running Android platform. Sony Xperia UI mostly consists of Sony own's application such as Sony Music (formerly known as Walkman Music player), Albums and Video Player. During its time as Timescape UI, the UI was different than the standard Android UI, instead of traditional apps dock on the bottom part, it was located at the four corner of the home screen, while the middle of the screen consist of the widget. However the recent development of UI are closely resemble to those of Stock Android.
ZenUI is a front-end touch interface developed by ASUS with partners, featuring a full touch user interface. ZenUI is used by Asus for its Android phones and tablet computers, and is not available for licensing by external parties. ZenUI also comes preloaded with Asus-made apps like ZenLink (PC Link, Share Link, Party Link & Remote Link).
Chrome OS[edit]
Chrome OS is an operating system designed by Google that is based on the Linux kernel and uses the Google Chrome web browser as its principal user interface. As a result, Chrome OS primarily supports web applications. Google announced the project in July 2009, conceiving it as an operating system in which both applications and user data reside in the cloud: hence Chrome OS primarily runs web applications.[19]
Due to increase of popularity with 2 in 1 PCs, most recent Chromebooks are introduced with touch screen capability, with Android applications starting to become available for the operating system in 2014. And in 2016, access to Android apps in the entire Google Play Store was introduced on supported Chrome OS devices. With the support of Android applications, there are Chromebook devices that are positioned as tablet based instead of notebooks.
Chrome OS is only available pre-installed on hardware from Google manufacturing partners. An open source equivalent, Chromium OS, can be compiled from downloaded source code. Early on, Google provided design goals for Chrome OS, but has not otherwise released a technical description.
Fuchsia[edit]
Fuchsia is a capability-based, real-time operating system (RTOS) currently being developed by Google. It was first discovered as a mysterious code post on GitHub in August 2016, without any official announcement. In contrast to prior Google-developed operating systems such as Chrome OS and Android, which are based on Linux kernels, Fuchsia is based on a new microkernel called 'Zircon', derived from 'Little Kernel', a small operating system intended for embedded systems. Upon inspection, media outlets noted that the code post on GitHub suggested Fuchsia's capability to run on universal devices, from embedded systems to smartphones, tablets and personal computers. In May 2017, Fuchsia was updated with a user interface, along with a developer writing that the project was not a for experimental, prompting media speculation about Google's intentions with the operating system, including the possibility of it replacing Android.
Current Fuchsia version list:
LiteOS[edit]
LiteOS is a lightweight open source real-time operating system which is part of Huawei's '1+2+1' Internet of Things solution, which is similar to Google Android Things and Samsung Tizen. Huawei LiteOS features lightweight, low-power, fast-response, multi-sensor collaboration, multi-protocol interconnect connectivity, enabling IoT terminals to quickly access the network. Huawei LiteOS will make intelligent hardware development easier. Thereby accelerating the realization of the interconnection of all things. Currently LiteOS are introduce to the consumer market with the Huawei Watch GT series and smartbands.
Current LiteOS version list:
PureOS[edit]
PureOS is a Debian GNU/Linux derivative using only free software, developed by Purism (company), already used on Purism's laptops and planned for use on the Librem 5 smartphone. Purism, in partnership with GNOME and KDE, aims to separate the CPU from the baseband processor and include hardware kill switches for the phone's Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, camera, microphone and baseband processor, and provide both GNOME and KDE Plasma Mobile as options for the desktop environment.[20][21]
Sailfish OS[edit]
Sailfish OS is from Jolla. It is open source with GNU General Public License (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is proprietary software (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many different kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI. Using third party software extends usability but does not make the OS code close, in the same way as preinstalled Microsoft Word (closed source) on a Linux device does not make Linux closed source.
After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the MeeGo project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and Mer business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the Jolla smartphone, was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, Jolla Tablet was launched and the BRICS countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits.
Each Sailfish OS version release is named after a Finnish lake:
Tizen[edit]
Tizen (based on the Linux kernel) is a mobile operating system hosted by Linux Foundation, together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of Intel and Samsung.
Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, In-Vehicle Infotainment (IVI) devices, and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the WebKit runtime. According to Intel, Tizen 'combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo.' HTML5 apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the 'future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5.' Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.[22][23] On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.[24]
While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that developed by Samsung was mainly closed source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone.
Current Tizen version list:
Ubuntu Touch[edit]
Ubuntu Touch is from Canonical Ltd. It is open source and uses the GPL license.[24] Ubuntu Touch as an OS is built using the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an LXC container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.[25] As of August 2018, the desktop environment of Ubuntu Touch is planned to be available as one of the default desktop options on the Librem 5 running PureOS as the operating system.[26]
Though Canonical formally announced it was discontinuing the Ubuntu mobile OS with its integral component Unity8,[27] the independent German non-profit UBPorts Community/('Foundation' paperwork pending in the local Berlin-government) decided to takeover the project.[28][29] Canonical started Ubuntu Touch based on Ubuntu15.04 (Vivid Vervet) and UBPorts upgraded the base to the nearest, current long-term support version Ubuntu 16.04 LTS (Xenial Xerus).
Original Canonical Ubuntu Touch version list:[30]
UBPorts Ubuntu Touch version list:[31]
Desktop environments[edit]
Plasma Mobile is a KDE desktop environment for mobile phones intended to be compatible with several different mobile phone operating systems, including PureOS running on the Librem 5.[26]
Others[edit]
Other open source mobile operating systems under active development as of 2018 include LuneOS, based on webOS; postmarketOS, based on the Alpine Linux GNU/Linux distribution; Maemo Leste; Meizu PRO 5 Ubuntu Edition and Meizu MX4 Ubuntu Edition running Ubuntu Touch; and Necuno using a GNU/Linux distribution and the Plasma Mobile desktop from KDE.[38]
Closed source[edit]Amazfit OS (Proprietary OS)[edit]
The proprietary version of Amazfit OS that are develop by Xiaomi backed Huami for their Amazfit Bip smartwatch, however instead of based on Android, it was based on proprietary operating system, thus it is not able to install third party apps such as APK's.
iOS[edit]
iOS (formerly named iPhone OS) was created by Apple Inc. It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.[39] It is closed source and proprietary, and is built on the open source Darwin operating system. The iPhone, iPod Touch, iPad and second or third-generation Apple TV all use iOS, which is derived from macOS.
Native third party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, 'jailbreaking' allowed third party applications to be installed. In recent years, the jailbreaking scene has changed drastically due to Apple's continued efforts to secure their operating system and prevent unauthorized modifications. Currently, jailbreaks of recent iterations of iOS are only semi-untethered, which requires a device to be re-jailbroken at every boot, and exploits for jailbreaks are becoming increasingly hard to find and use.
Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by Foxconn or another of Apple's partners.
Current iOS version list[edit]
watchOS[edit]
watchOS is the operating system of the Apple Watch, developed by Apple Inc. It is based on the iOS operating system and has many similar features. It was released on April 24, 2015, along with the Apple Watch, the only device that runs watchOS. It is currently the most widely used wearable operating system. Its features focus on convenience, such as being able to place phone calls and send texts, and health, such as fitness and heart rate tracking.
The most current version of the watchOS operating system is watchOS 5.
Current watchOS version list[edit]Windows 10[edit]
Windows 10 is a personal computer operating system developed and released by Microsoft as part of the Windows NTfamily of operating systems. It was released on July 29, 2015. Just like its predecessors, it was designed to run across multiple Microsoft product such as PCs and Tablets. The Windows user interface was revised to handle transitions between a mouse-oriented interface and a touchscreen-optimized interface based on available input devicesâââparticularly on 2-in-1 PCs.
Windows 10 also introduces the universal apps, expanding on Metro-style apps, these apps can be designed to run across multiple Microsoft product families with nearly identical codeâââincluding PCs, tablets, smartphones, embedded systems, Xbox One, Surface Hub and Mixed Reality.
Current Windows 10 version list:
KaiOS[edit]
KaiOS is from Kai. It is based on Firefox OS. Unlike most mobile operating systems which focus on smartphones, KaiOS was developed mainly for feature phones, giving these access to more advanced technologies usually found on smartphones, such as app stores and Wi-Fi/4G capabilities.[40]
Under maintenance only[edit]BlackBerry 10[edit]
BlackBerry 10 (based on the QNX OS) is from BlackBerry. As a smartphone OS, it is closed source and proprietary, and only runs on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry.
One of the dominant platforms in the world in late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue to support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.[41][42] Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development.
Current BlackBerry 10 version list:
Windows 10 Mobile[edit]
Windows 10 Mobile (formerly called Windows Phone) is from Microsoft. It is closed source and proprietary.
Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone includes a user interface inspired by Microsoft's Metro Design Language. It is integrated with Microsoft services such as OneDrive and Office, Xbox Music, Xbox Video, Xbox Live games and Bing, but also integrates with many other non-Microsoft services such as Facebook and Google accounts. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by Microsoft Mobile/Nokia, and also by HTC and Samsung.
On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand will be phased out and replaced with Windows 10 Mobile, bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart Windows 10, and provide a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches.
In October 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile, instead it would put it in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only, therefore Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.[43]
Current Windows 10 Mobile version list:
Discontinued software platforms[edit]Open source[edit]CyanogenMod[edit]
CyanogenMod was a custom mobile operating system based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). It was a custom ROM that was co-developed by the CyanogenMod community. The OS did not include any proprietary apps unless the user installed them. Due to its open source nature, CyanogenMod allowed Android users who could no longer obtain update support from their manufacturer to continue updating their OS version to the latest one based on official releases from Google AOSP and heavy theme customization. The last version of the OS was CyanogenMod 13 which was based on Android Asus
On December 24, 2016, CyanogenMod announced on their blog that they would no longer be releasing any CyanogenMod updates. All development moved to LineageOS.
Cyanogen OS was based on CyanogenMod and maintained by Cyanogen Inc; however, it included proprietary apps and it was only available for commercial uses.
Firefox OS[edit]
Firefox OS[46] (project name: Boot to Gecko, also known as B2G) is from Mozilla. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the Mozilla Public License built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android.
According to Ars Technica, 'Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems.'[47] In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.[48]
MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin[edit]
MeeGo was from non-profit organization The Linux Foundation. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 Mobile World Congress in Barcelona, Nokia and Intel both unveiled MeeGo, a mobile operating system that combined Moblin and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the Nokia N9 on June 21, 2011 at the Nokia Connection event[49] in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.[50]Maemo was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and Internet tablets. It is open source and GPL, based on Debian GNU/Linux and draws much of its graphical user interface (GUI), frameworks, and libraries from the GNOME project. It uses the Matchbox window manager and the GTK-based Hildon as its GUI and application framework.
webOS[edit]
webOS was developed by Palm. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the Palm Pre. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the Veer and the Pre 3) and a tablet (the TouchPad) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,[51] but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.[52] HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.[53] On February 25, 2013 HP announced the sale of WebOS to LG Electronics, who used the operating system for its 'smart' or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog.
Closed source[edit]BlackBerry OS[edit]
In 1999, Research In Motion released its first BlackBerry devices, providing secure real-time push-email communications on wireless devices. Services such as BlackBerry Messenger provide the integration of all communications into a single inbox. In September 2012, RIM announced that the 200 millionth BlackBerry smartphone was shipped. As of September 2014, there were around 46 million active BlackBerry service subscribers.[54] In early 2010s, RIM has undergone a platform transition, changing its company name to BlackBerry Limited and making new devices on a new platform named 'BlackBerry 10'.[55]
Windows Mobile[edit]
Windows Mobile is a discontinued operating system from Microsoft that it replaced with Windows Phone.[8][56] It is closed source and proprietary.
The Windows CE operating system and Windows Mobile middleware was widely spread in Asia (which mostly uses Android now). The two improved variants of this operating system, Windows Mobile 6 Professional (for touch screen devices) and Windows Mobile 6 Standard, were unveiled in February 2007. It was criticized for having a user interface which is not optimized for touch input by fingers; instead, it is more usable with a stylus. Like iOS, and most other Mobile OS, it supports both touch screen, physical and Bluetooth keyboard configurations. Microsoft phased out the Windows Mobile OS to focus on Windows Phone.[57][58]
Windows Phone[edit]
Windows Phone is a family of mobile operating systems developed by Microsoft for smartphones as the replacement successor to Windows Mobile and Zune. Windows Phone features a new user interface derived from Metro design language. Windows Phone was replaced by Windows 10 Mobile in 2015.
Symbian[edit]
The Symbian platform was developed by Nokia for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (SonyEricsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.[59]
Bada[edit]
Bada platform (stylized as bada; Korean: ë°ë¤) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from 'ë°ë¤ (bada)', meaning 'ocean' or 'sea' in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy.On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to Tizen instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.[60]
Palm OS[edit]
Palm OS/Garnet OS was from Access Co. It is closed source and proprietary. webOS was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, open architecture and multitasking abilities.
Market share[edit]Usage[edit]
In 2006, Android and iOS did not exist and only 64 million smartphones were sold.[61] In 2018 Q1, 383.5 million smartphones were sold and global market share was 85.9% for Android and 14.1% for iOS.[62]
According to StatCounter web use statistics (a proxy for all use), smartphones (alone without tablets) have majority use globally, with desktop computers used much less (and Android in particular more popular than Windows).[63] Use varies however by continent with smartphones way more popular in the biggest continents, i.e. Asia, and the desktop still more popular in some, though not in North America.
The desktop is still popular in many countries (while overall down to 44.9% in the first quarter of 2017[64]), smartphones are more popular even in many developed countries (or about to be in more). A few countries on any continent are desktop-minority; European countries (and some in South America, and a few, e.g. Haiti, in North America; and most in Asia and Africa) are smartphone-majority, Poland and Turkey highest with 57.68% and 62.33%, respectively. In Ireland, smartphone use at 45.55% outnumbers desktop use and mobile as a whole gains majority when including the tablet share at 9.12%.[65][66] Spain is also slightly desktop-minority.
The range of measured mobile web use varies a lot by country, and a StatCounter press release recognizes 'India amongst world leaders in use of mobile to surf the internet'[67] (of the big countries) where the share is around (or over) 80%[68] and desktop is at 19.56%, with Russia trailing with 17.8% mobile use (and desktop the rest).
Smartphones (alone, without tablets), first gained majority in December 2016 (desktop-majority was lost the month before), and it wasn't a Christmas-time fluke, as while close to majority after smartphone majority happened again in March 2017.[69]
In the week from November 7â13, 2016, smartphones alone (without tablets) overtook desktop, for the first time (for a short period; non-full-month).[70] Mobile-majority applies to countries such as Paraguay in South America, Poland in Europe and Turkey; and most of Asia and Africa. Some of the world is still desktop-majority, with e.g. in the United States at 54.89% (but no not on all days).[71] However, in some territories of the United States, such as Puerto Rico,[72] desktop is way under majority, with Windows under 30% overtaken by Android.
On October 22, 2016 (and subsequent weekends), mobile showed majority.[73] Since October 27, the desktop hasn't shown majority, not even on weekdays. And smartphones alone have showed majority since December 23 to the end of the year, with the share topping at 58.22% on Christmas Day.[74] To the 'mobile'-majority share then of smartphones, tablets could be added giving a 63.22% majority. While an unusually high top, a similarly high also happened on Monday April 17, 2017, with then only smartphones share slightly lower and tablet share slightly higher, with them combined at 62.88%.
Formerly, according to StatCounter press release, the world has turned desktop-minority;[75] as of October 2016, at about 49% desktop use for that month, but mobile wasn't ranked higher, tablet share had to be added to it to exceed desktop share.
By operating system[edit]
Note:
See table below for source data.
See table below for source data
See also[edit]References[edit]
Other references[edit]
External links[edit]
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